High levels of sexual assault have been reported in the U.S. military, and actual sexual assault rates are even higher than U.S. government estimates, according to a new study by Brown University.

The study suggests that actual sexual assault prevalence was two to four times higher than the Department of Defense (DoD) estimations over the course of the war in Afghanistan between 2001 and 2021.

The DoD figures estimate that there were approximately 35,900 cases in 2021, but an independent study (by Brown University) suggested 75,569 cases. In 2023, there were 73,695 cases suggested by independent study, 2.5 times higher than 29,000 cases by Pentagon estimates.

Between 2001 and 2021, 24 percent of active-duty women and 1.9 percent of active-duty men experienced sexual assault on average, according to the study.

Women of color are one of the fastest-growing populations within the U.S. military, but also face the greatest risk of assault. They experience intersecting forms of racism and sexism, according to the study.

The 2023 data was released during one of the biggest military sexual assault scandals in history, in which an Army doctor is accused of assaulting over 100 patients.