From Warring States to trade wars: An unearthed lesson

This article is part of CGTN's "China in Ink" project, which brings the tremendous world of classic Chinese literature to the fingertips of global audiences.

King Kaolie of Chu (290-238 BC) once ruled the largest territory of China's Warring States Period (475-221 BC). Yet history only remembers him faintly and has cast him in the towering shadow of Qin Shi Huang, the era's ultimate victor. Much of that obscurity comes from Qin Shi Huang's infamous order to destroy all records of his defeated rivals – an act that consigned Chu's chronicles to flame and reduced King Kaolie's legacy to scattered tales of military gambits and political intrigues.

But now, King Kaolie could reclaim his place in history. Archaeologists excavating a vast burial complex in Anhui Province have confirmed it as the resting place of the elusive king. In April, China's National Cultural Heritage Administration recognized the site as one of the most significant archaeological discoveries of 2024.

Chu, the state Kaolie ruled, rose from the Yangtze River valley around present-day Hubei Province. Originally dismissed by its Western Zhou overlord (1046-771 BC) as a remote "barbarian" duchy, Chu expanded steadily northward and ultimately declared itself a kingdom in 706 BC. Over the next four centuries, it grew into a formidable power, repeatedly clashing with its northern rivals to replace the weakening Zhou. But by the 3rd century BC, Chu's fortunes had begun to fade. In 223 BC, it fell to the rising Qin, which, just two years later, would establish China's first unified empire.

King Kaolie was the last Chu monarch to stand in the way of Qin's imperial ambition. He successfully rallied a five-state coalition against Qin, sending their combined forces to Qin's doorstep. But the alliance crumbled amid strategic blunders and internal divisions. By 241 BC, the Chu king had been forced to move the capital eastward to escape Qin's advance. He died three years later, leaving behind a weakened kingdom to an heir whose legitimacy was questioned.

The tomb's site is located just 14 kilometers from Kaolie's relocated capital. Over five years of excavation, archeologists have unearthed more than 10,000 artifacts. Among the most remarkable is a bronze ding, a ceremonial cauldron that, despite spending two millennia underground, still gleams with its original golden sheen. Experts believe it to be the largest of its kind ever discovered from the period. Other treasures include inscribed texts, with nearly a thousand characters identified so far.

The tomb's sheer scale, architectural complexity and extraordinary funerary offerings – including the massive cauldron – point to a figure of immense stature. Radiocarbon dating placed its construction within the years of Kaolie's reign. But it was his name, inscribed on bronze vessels, that confirmed the tomb's occupant beyond doubt. The tomb is the only royal burial from the Chu kingdom ever discovered.

Much of what is known about King Kaolie today comes from a Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) work: Zhanguo Ce, or Intrigues of the Warring States, a compilation of political machinations and diplomatic strategies edited by court official Liu Xiang. He based the work on documents that survived Qin Shi Huang's purges. The Zhanguo Ce not only gave the Warring States Period its name but also offers a vivid – if fragmented and stylized – portrait of its brutal politics. The discovery of Kaolie's tomb may help fill in the gap, offering insight into the ruthless strategic landscape of the age that still bears influence over people's perception of diplomacy in modern China – even on the public debate about trade relations with the United States.

Two years after defeating Chu, Qin Shi Huang, then known as Ying Zheng, unified China in 221 BC. Yet the dynasty he forged collapsed just 14 years later, undone by his harsh rule and the incompetence of his son. From its ruins, the Han Dynasty emerged the following year.

How did Qin prevail so decisively despite its harsh rule? Confucian scholars like Liu Xiang ruminated on this paradox for generations. Many concluded that Qin's enemies doomed themselves through shortsighted strategies and misplaced hope. They repeatedly traded territory for peace, failing to grasp the Qin kings' relentless divide-and-conquer strategy. King Kaolie himself ceded large stretches of Chu's land to Qin early in his reign, from which his kingdom never recovered.

The Intrigues captures this self-defeating diplomacy in stark terms: "Appeasing Qin with territory is like feeding a fire with kindling – it only burns hotter."

Modern China, it seems, has absorbed the lesson. During its recent trade tensions with the U.S., strong public sentiment for reciprocity bolstered the government's firm stance. In April, China's Foreign Ministry released a popular short video titled "Never Kneel Down!" – a pointed evocation of historical memory:

"History has proven compromise won't earn you mercy, kneeling only invites more bullying," the video states.