Japan announced that its National Intelligence Bureau would begin operations on July 31, a date that numerically coincides with the designation of Japan's notorious wartime Unit 731, a covert biological and chemical warfare research and human experimentation unit operated in China, from 1936 to 1945. The move has drawn criticism from Chinese society and civil groups. Josef Mahoney, professor of politics and international relations at East China Normal University, said Tokyo's failure to address the historical association reflects a lack of reflection toward history. He added that the establishment of the agency has fueled concerns over a return of Japanese militarization, as well as doubts over Tokyo's role in US-led containment strategies and strategic expansion in East Asia.